Module 8- The Lincoln-Douglas debates

The year was 1858 and the Union was in a deep political crisis. The center of that crisis was the topic of slavery in the Union, and whether newly admitted states would be free or slave states. In Illinois there was an intense debate between two candidates that set the stage for the future of our country. The debates that I am talking about are the Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858.

Stephen Douglas was the incumbent Democratic senator of Illinois and Abraham Lincoln was his Republican challenger. (Faragher, 2006, 422) Lincoln held an antislavery stance and felt that slavery was a moral wrong. (Faragher, 2006, 423) Douglas did not appear to take a definitive stance on slavery. He thought that he was solving the slavery problem by proposing that the status of slavery in the new territories be decided by popular sovereignty. (Faragher, 2006, 434)

In all there were seven debates held throughout Illinois, and the turnouts emphasized the enormity of the political crisis. At every debate there were between 10,000 and 15,000 attendees. The second debate was held in Freeport on, which is along the northern border of Illinois, and Douglas’s stance helped him win re-election but it also alienated him from the Southern Democrats.

Below is the link to an article written on August 27th, 1858 by John T. Morton of the Quincy Dailey Whig and Republican.

http://lincoln.lib.niu.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2255:1.lincoln

I found this article, that has been digitized, on the Northern Illinois University’s library website. What I found interesting was how precise Lincoln was with his answers while Douglas used vague language for the most part. Senator Douglas seems as though he did not want to take a wholehearted stance on the issue of slavery in the new territories. Is it possible that Douglas was not being clear as a way to appeal to all voters? If that was the case then it helped him win re-election, but it also helped Abraham Lincoln gain popularity and shortly become President when the South succeeded from the Union.

Below is the results from the 1858 campaign for U.S. Senator of Illinois in which Stephen Douglas won.


Image Source: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project

Module 6- The Bill of Rights and Modern Times

After the Revolutionary War, our new country was in need of a national government that would unite our new nation. Our country was in the midst of an economic crisis and something needed to be done. The need for a centralized government was there, but the question was how much power should it be allowed.

During the ratification process of the Constitution, two political groups emerged. The Federalists were supporters of the new Constitution and the Anti-Federalists opposed it. Most Anti-Federalists believed that the Constitution gave too much power to the central government, thereby weakening the autonomy of communities and states. (Faragher, 2006, 214) The Anti-Federalist support prevented the Constitution from being ratified. The main issue was a amendment to the Constitution that would protect the people from potential abuses of the federal government. The promise of a Bill of Rights was important to the Constitution being ratified by five of the states. (Faragher, 2006, 216) There are ten amendments to the Constitution in the Bill of Rights, but do they effectively protect the people from excessive power by the federal government? The Fourth Amendment has been a recent topic that will be discussed.

According to the American Constitution, the Fourth Amendment reads; The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. How is it then that in recent times our federal government, more specifically President George Bush, has been able to violate this right?

Below is a link from a New York Times article that discusses President Bush's disregard for the Fourth Amendment. An excerpt from that article reads, "President Bush secretly authorized the National Security Agency to eavesdrop on Americans and others inside the United States to search for evidence of terrorist activity without the court-approved warrants ordinarily required for domestic spying, according to government officials." (NY Times, Dec. 16, 2005)

http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/16/politics/16program.html

The Bill of Rights is over two-hundred years old, but it still applies to this very day. I think that the Fourth Amendment is one of the clearest and concise Amendments to our original Constitution, and I cannot understand how it could be openly violated. This issue makes me question whether our government has too much power, and whether there is a need for action. Our government has three branches that are suppose to be balanced, according to the Constitution, but that could be questioned in modern times. My question is, does the Bill of Rights effectively protect the people of this country from excessive power by the federal government, and, if not, how do we restore the balance?

Module 5- The Boston Tea Party

The Seven Years’ War between the British and the French in America ended with the British gaining control of all land east of the Mississippi and control of Canada. This war did not come without a price. Britain was in need of revenues to repay the debt from the war, and to maintain a force of British soldiers in North America. (Faragher, 2006, 156) Britain also felt that it was time to reorganize its American empire. The Sugar Act of 1764 was a way for Britain to receive additional revenue from the colonies. The Stamp Act of 1765, the Declaratory Act of 1766, the Townshend Revenue Acts of 1767, and finally the Tea Act of 1773 followed this act.

Colonists were major consumers of tea, but due to the Townshend Act, and the subsequent collapse of the tea market, prices for tea were too high for many. (Faragher, 2006, 162) The British Parliament passed the Tea Act in order to lower prices enough for tea drinkers to afford. According to Faragher, “the radicals argued that this was merely a device to make palatable the payment of unconstitutional taxes.” The radicals felt that this was another effort from the British to corrupt the colonists. There was a mass meeting in Philadelphia, which decided that tea should not be imported. Boston also passed a resolution calling for the same as Philadelphia, but the tea agents resisted the call to refuse shipments. (Faragher, 2006, 163)

What happened next in Boston is remembered as the Boston Tea Party. Below is a first-hand account of the events that took place on December 17, 1773 by one of the participants, George Hewes.

"The tea destroyed was contained in three ships, lying near each other at what was called at that time Griffin's wharf, and were surrounded by armed ships of war, the commanders of which had publicly declared that if the rebels, as they were pleased to style the Bostonians, should not withdraw their opposition to the landing of the tea before a certain day, the 17th day of December, 1773, they should on that day force it on shore, under the cover of their cannon's mouth."

"On the day preceding the seventeenth, there was a meeting of the citizens of the county of Suffolk, convened at one of the churches in Boston, for the purpose of consulting on what measures might be considered expedient to prevent the landing of the tea, or secure the people from the collection of the duty. At that meeting a committee was appointed to wait on Governor Hutchinson, and request him to inform them whether he would take any measures to satisfy the people on the object of the meeting."

"To the first application of this committee, the Governor told them he would give them a definite answer by five o'clock in the afternoon. At the hour appointed, the committee again repaired to the Governor's house, and on inquiry found he had gone to his country seat at Milton, a distance of about six miles. When the committee returned and informed the meeting of the absence of the Governor, there was a confused murmur among the members, and the meeting was immediately dissolved, many of them crying out, "Let every man do his duty, and be true to his country"; and there was a general huzza for Griffin's wharf."

"It was now evening, and I immediately dressed myself in the costume of an Indian, equipped with a small hatchet, which I and my associates denominated the tomahawk, with which, and a club, after having painted my face and hands with coal dust in the shop of a blacksmith, I repaired to Griffin's wharf, where the ships lay that contained the tea. When I first appeared in the street after being thus disguised, I fell in with many who were dressed, equipped and painted as I was, and who fell in with me and marched in order to the place of our destination."

"When we arrived at the wharf, there were three of our number who assumed an authority to direct our operations, to which we readily submitted. They divided us into three parties, for the purpose of boarding the three ships which contained the tea at the same time. The name of him who commanded the division to which I was assigned was Leonard Pitt. The names of the other commanders I never knew."

"We were immediately ordered by the respective commanders to board all the ships at the same time, which we promptly obeyed. The commander of the division to which I belonged, as soon as we were on board the ship appointed me boatswain, and ordered me to go to the captain and demand of him the keys to the hatches and a dozen candles. I made the demand accordingly, and the captain promptly replied, and delivered the articles; but requested me at the same time to do no damage to the ship or rigging."

"We then were ordered by our commander to open the hatches and take out all the chests of tea and throw them overboard, and we immediately proceeded to execute his orders, first cutting and splitting the chests with our tomahawks, so as thoroughly to expose them to the effects of the water."

"In about three hours from the time we went on board, we had thus broken and thrown overboard every tea chest to be found in the ship, while those in the other ships were disposing of the tea in the same way, at the same time. We were surrounded bv British armed ships, but no attempt was made to resist us."

"We then quietly retired to our several places of residence, without having any conversation with each other, or taking any measures to discover who were our associates; nor do I recollect of our having had the knowledge of the name of a single individual concerned in that affair, except that of Leonard Pitt, the commander of my division, whom I have mentioned. There appeared to be an understanding that each individual should volunteer his services, keep his own secret, and risk the consequence for himself. No disorder took place during that transaction, and it was observed at that time that the stillest night ensued that Boston had enjoyed for many months."

"During the time we were throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. To effect that object, they would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets."

"One Captain O'Connor, whom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed he was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him and gave information to the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to take him into custody, and just as he was stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, I tore it off; but, springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had, however, to run a gauntlet through the crowd upon the wharf nine each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke."

"Another attempt was made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo by a tall, aged man who wore a large cocked hat and white wig, which was fashionable at that time. He had sleightly slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him and, taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In consideration of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick."

"The next morning, after we had cleared the ships of the tea, it was discovered that very considerable quantities of it were floating upon the surface of the water; and to prevent the possibility of any of its being saved for use, a number of small boats were manned by sailors and citizens, who rowed them into those parts of the harbor wherever the tea was visible, and by beating it with oars and paddles so thoroughly drenched it as to render its entire destruction inevitable."
-- George Hewes

Source: http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/revolution/teaparty.htm

I was hoping that when I found a first hand account of the Bopston Tea Party that I might discover something new that I didn't already know through previous learning. I did find it interesting that the British war ships did not attempt to stop the colonists from boarding the ships containg tea. I think the detailed description of various people taking some of the tea for themselves is accurate, but I wonder about the punishments. George Hewes was telling of the perpetrators being seized so that the tea was taken from them, and then they were allowed to leave with only some kicks from the colonists as they moved through the crowds. Hewes makes his account of the events sound very peaceful, but I find it hard to believe that him completely. We must keep in mind that the Boston Tea Party came after the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Declaratory Act, Townshend Revenue Acts, and Tea Act. Also tensions were still high from the result of the Boston Massacre. I think that tensions were high, colonists were at their breaking points, and the events of the Boston Tea Party did not run as smoothly as George Hewes describes. Do you feel that Hewes gave an accurate account of the Boston Tea Party, or do you think that he omitted some information to make the story sound good?

Module 4- Slavery and the Middle Passage

Slavery in the colonies of America played a significant role in the development of the economy and future of this country. Of course, this chapter of American history will always be a dark one. There is no question as to whether slavery is considered inhumane and downright evil in today’s society. I cannot imagine the fear and terror that would have overcome an African taken as a prisoner never to see his or her home again.

Most Africans were enslaved through warfare or through small raids that occurred during the night. (Faragher, 2006, 86) These prisoners were then marched to the coast to be sold into slavery bound for the Americas. The African raiders were paid typically with European goods for trading their captives to European traders. Once the deals were made, the captives would be loaded onto ships to be shipped to the Americas.

The part of the journey by slave ships across the Atlantic was called the “Middle Passage.” (Faragher, 2006, 88) Slave ships were designed with the intent to transport as many slaves as possible. This meant that captives were packed below deck like sardines without much room to move or breath. In addition, the slaves were chained together to prevent uprisings and/or possible escape. The worst part of being below deck on a slave ship was, “the absence of adequate sanitation.” (Faragher, 2006, 88) Because there was so little space to move most captives urinated and defecated where they lie. This created filthy conditions that spread disease throughout the slaves, and many became sick and died. (Fargher, 2006, 89)

A former slave Olaudah Equiano composed the first-ever slave autobiography. In his narrative, Olaudah describes his experience while traveling the Middle Passage: "The closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate, added to the number in the ship. . . almost suffocated us. . . This wretched situation was again aggravated by the galling of the chains, now become insupportable; . . . The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole a scene of horror almost inconceivable." (Equiano, 1789)

More information on Olaudah Equiano can be found by entering the following web address,
http://www.pbs.org/thisfarbyfaith/people/olaudah_equiano.html

If the captives survived the long journey across the ocean, then the next stage of their nightmare would begin. They would be cleaned up and fed in order to appear healthy to buyers. Sometimes merchants sold the captives directly to willing buyers. In this method, the buyers would examine and poke the Africans before purchasing just as we do fruits. There were also auctions, “or another cruel method known as the scramble.” (Faragher, 2006, 89) During the “scramble,” Africans would be herded into corrals and then buyers would rush in to seize their pick. (Faragher, 2006, 89) This is similar, in a way, to when women wait outside of a bridal store to seize a wedding dress at a huge discount. After the sale was made, the slave would be taken to their destination, usually a plantation, to spend the rest of their lives working for a master.

Thankfully, slavery was abolished after a few hundred years, but the pain and suffering is irreversible. It amazes me that African slaves were able to endure through adversity for so long. Although the Africans were stripped from their homelands, they were still able to retain their beliefs and cultures through shear perseverance. The horror and inhumanity towards African slaves is hard to fathom. They are an important yet dark part of our history. Africans helped develop this country through their blood, sweat, and tears.

Module 3- Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus has a holiday named after him, but does he really deserve it? When he set sail in the fall of 1492, Columbus believed that he would make it to the East Indies. However, one-fourth of the way there he stumbled across a new land. (Zinn, 2003, 4) This new land, later named the Bahamas, was the first discovery of many that would forever change the world. Columbus would later explore the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola before sailing home with his discoveries. (Faragher, 2006, 38) So far, this sounds like what I may have been taught when I was younger, and it definitely excludes much important information.

When Christopher Columbus first approached one of the islands in the Bahamas, the native Arawak Indians swam out to greet him and his crew. (Zinn, 2003, 5) They were hospitable and gave gifts to Columbus. Columbus was given a gold mask as a gift by a local Indian chief, which led him to wild visions of gold. (Zinn, 2003, 5) This act helped open the door to invasion and death that would ultimately give birth to this country, the United States of America.

Columbus eventually sailed back to Madrid with some prisoners and gave an extravagant report to the royal court. (Zinn, 2003, 5) In return, Columbus sailed back to the Caribbean with 17 ships and more than 1200 men with the intention of bringing gold and slaves back to Spain. Columbus had a fort built in Haiti and from there; he led expeditions into the interior of the island to find gold. Columbus didn’t find gold fields, but he did finds fields of natives to be taken back to Spain as slaves.

In the end, Columbus was a great navigator and he discovered the clockwise circulation of winds and currents in the Atlantic that would enable countless ships to sail to the Americas in the future. (Faragher, 2006, 38) However, his contributions do not in any way excuse or offset the barbarism and death that Columbus contributed to the fall of native societies. Christopher Columbus should not be celebrated for his so called “accomplishments” as he did far more bad then good. Do you believe that Columbus deserves to have a holiday named after him?

Module 2- "Pre-Columbian Indian Civilizations"

During the period in North America before the European’s arrival there was a rich history established by years of inhabitation by Native Americans. It is generally accepted that the native inhabitants of North America came from Asia. (Faragher, 2006, 7) With this migration came new ways of adapting and evolving. An example would be new forms in which they acquired food. Some communities hunted, fished, foraged, or gathered food. As societies became more complex farming emerged as a viable way of life for native communities.

Along the Mississippi River a society was created that became known as the Mississippian society. The capital city was a city named Cahokia. Cahokia is located just east of modern day St. Louis in the town of Cahokia, Illinois. The Cahokians exhibited characteristics of a complex society such as complex social organization, regional trade, farming, artistic traditions, and craft specialization. (Faragher, 2006, 18) It is believed that the Mississippian’s political structure engaged human sacrifice as a method of control and power.

Today there are still remnants of this lost culture in some of the mounds and structures that were created. There are dozens of earthen mounds, stockades, and a large two-tiered mound called Monks Mound. I have been blessed to have actually lived near this area for many years while I was growing up. Monks Mound is the largest man-made earthen mound in the North American continent. (Fowler, 1989, 25)


(Courtesy of the Cahokia Mounds State Historical Site, www.cahokiamounds.com)

The stockade that surrounded the central sections of Cahokia confirmed that warfare was a reality during the times of the Mississippians. The stockade was two-miles-long and was created with logs that were 20 feet tall. (Cahokia Mounds State Historical Site) It appears that this wall was a defensive structure by the usage of evenly spaced bastions, projections from which archers could shoot arrows, and the height of the wall. (Cahokia Mounds State Historical Site)


(Artwork by George Bloodsworth, www.cahokiamounds.com)

The eventual collapse of this vast society is unknown, but it is believed that the growth of numerous towns in the region and warfare played a role. Eventually Cahokia and other cities were abandoned and people relocated to “smaller, decentralized communities”. (Faragher, 2006, 19) The vast cities of the Mississippian culture may have collapsed, but remnants of the culture remained for centuries afterwards.

My intro

My name is Jeff Ignatz, I am 26, and my career is as an X-ray technologist. I have been going back to school to pursue a degree in the field of psychology. Between working full-time and school I don't have a great deal of time, but my main hobbie is photography. I like to stay active and exercise year round. My favorite active activity is snowboarding, and I look forward to winter because of that. I am taking this class as a requirement and I plan on learning something about our history through this class. Good luck to everyone and enjoy the work.